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This timeline of cosmological theories and discoveries is a chronological record of the development of humanity's understanding of the cosmos over the last two-plus millennia. Modern cosmological ideas follow the development of the scientific discipline of physical cosmology.


Pre-1900



1900–1949



1950–1999



Since 2000



See also



Physical cosmology



Belief systems



Others



References


  1. Horowitz (1998), p. xii
  2. This is a matter of debate:
  3. "there are innumerable worlds of different sizes. In some there is neither sun nor moon, in others they are larger than in ours and others have more than one. These worlds are at irregular distances, more in one direction and less in another, and some are flourishing, others declining. Here they come into being, there they die, and they are destroyed by collision with one another. Some of the worlds have no animal or vegetable life nor any water."
  4. "Ancient Greek Astronomy and Cosmology | Modeling the Cosmos | Articles and Essays | Finding Our Place in the Cosmos: From Galileo to Sagan and Beyond | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Washington, DC.
  5. Blakemore, Erin. "Christopher Columbus Never Set Out to Prove the Earth was Round". History.com.
  6. Encyclopædia Britannica (2019). "heliocentrism | Definition, History, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica.
  7. Sorabji, Richard (2005). The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200–600 AD: Physics. Cornell University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-8014-8988-4.
  8. Aristotle; Forster, E. S. (Edward Seymour); Dobson, J. F. (John Frederic) (1914). De Mundo. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. p. 2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. "Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 BC) | High Altitude Observatory". www2.hao.ucar.edu. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  10. "Mahattattva, Mahat-tattva: 5 definitions". Wisdom Library. February 10, 2021. Mahattattva (महत्तत्त्व) or simply Mahat refers to a primordial principle of the nature of both pradhāna and puruṣa, according to the 10th century Saurapurāṇa: one of the various Upapurāṇas depicting Śaivism.—[...] From the disturbed prakṛti and the puruṣa sprang up the seed of mahat, which is of the nature of both pradhāna and puruṣa. The mahattattva is then covered by the pradhāna and being so covered it differentiates itself as the sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa-mahat. The pradhāna covers the mahat just as a seed is covered by the skin. Being so covered there spring from the three fold mahat the threefold ahaṃkāra called vaikārika, taijasa and bhūtādi or tāmasa.
  11. Gupta, S. V. (2010). "Ch. 1.2.4 Time Measurements". In Hull, Robert; Osgood, Richard M. Jr.; Parisi, Jurgen; Warlimont, Hans (eds.). Units of Measurement: Past, Present and Future. International System of Units. Springer Series in Materials Science: 122. Springer. pp. 7–8. ISBN 9783642007378.
  12. Penprase, Bryan E. (2017). The Power of Stars (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 182. ISBN 9783319525976.
  13. Johnson, W.J. (2009). A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0.
  14. Fernandez, Elizabeth. "The Multiverse And Eastern Philosophy". Forbes.
  15. Jackson, Roger; Makransky, John (2013). Buddhist Theology: Critical Reflections by Contemporary Buddhist Scholars. Routledge. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-136-83012-9.
  16. Reat, N. Ross; Perry, Edmund F. (1991). A World Theology: The Central Spiritual Reality of Humankind. Cambridge University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-521-33159-3.
  17. Adi Setia (2004). "Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey". Islam & Science. 2. Archived from the original on 2012-07-10. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
  18. Misner, Thorne and Wheeler
  19. Berendzen, Richard (1975). "Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric". Vistas in Astronomy. 17 (1): 65–83. Bibcode:1975VA.....17...65B. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5.
  20. Staff (March 17, 2014). "BICEP2 2014 Results Release". National Science Foundation. Retrieved March 18, 2014.
  21. Clavin, Whitney (March 17, 2014). "NASA Technology Views Birth of the Universe". NASA. Retrieved March 17, 2014.
  22. Overbye, Dennis (March 17, 2014). "Space Ripples Reveal Big Bang's Smoking Gun". The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2014.
  23. Overbye, Dennis (March 24, 2014). "Ripples From the Big Bang". New York Times. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
  24. Ade, P.A.R.; BICEP2 Collaboration (June 19, 2014). "Detection of B-Mode Polarization at Degree Angular Scales by BICEP2". Physical Review Letters. 112 (24): 241101. arXiv:1403.3985. Bibcode:2014PhRvL.112x1101B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.241101. PMID 24996078. S2CID 22780831.
  25. "BICEP2 News | Not Even Wrong".
  26. Overbye, Dennis (June 19, 2014). "Astronomers Hedge on Big Bang Detection Claim". New York Times. Retrieved June 20, 2014.
  27. Amos, Jonathan (June 19, 2014). "Cosmic inflation: Confidence lowered for Big Bang signal". BBC News. Retrieved June 20, 2014.
  28. Abbott, B. P.; Abbott, R.; Abbott, T. D.; Abernathy, M. R.; Acernese, F.; Ackley, K.; Adams, C.; Adams, T.; Addesso, P. (2016-02-11). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 26918975. S2CID 124959784.
  29. Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Alexandra (11 February 2016). "Einstein's gravitational waves found at last". Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19361. S2CID 182916902. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
  30. Blum, Alexander; Lalli, Roberto; Renn, Jürgen (12 February 2016). "The long road towards evidence". Max Planck Society. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
  31. Abbott, B. P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (15 June 2016). "GW151226: Observation of Gravitational Waves from a 22-Solar-Mass Binary Black Hole Coalescence". Physical Review Letters. 116 (24): 241103. arXiv:1606.04855. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116x1103A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.241103. PMID 27367379. S2CID 118651851.
  32. Commissariat, Tushna (15 June 2016). "LIGO detects second black-hole merger". Physics World. Institute of Physics. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  33. "First-ever Image of a Black Hole Published by the Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration". eventhorizontelescope.org. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  34. "The first picture of a black hole opens a new era of astrophysics". Science News. 2019-04-10. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  35. "How Does the Event Horizon Telescope Work?". Sky & Telescope. 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  36. University of Geneva (10 March 2020). "Solved: The mystery of the expansion of the universe". Phys.org. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
  37. Lombriser, Lucas (10 April 2020). "Consistency of the local Hubble constant with the cosmic microwave background". Physics Letters B. 803: 135303. arXiv:1906.12347. Bibcode:2020PhLB..80335303L. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2020.135303. S2CID 195750638.
  38. "Rethinking cosmology: Universe expansion may not be uniform (Update)". phys.org. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  39. "Nasa study challenges one of our most basic ideas about the universe". The Independent. 8 April 2020. Archived from the original on 2022-05-07. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
  40. "Parts of the universe may be expanding faster than others". New Atlas. 9 April 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
  41. "Doubts about basic assumption for the universe". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
  42. Migkas, K.; Schellenberger, G.; Reiprich, T. H.; Pacaud, F.; Ramos-Ceja, M. E.; Lovisari, L. (8 April 2020). "Probing cosmic isotropy with a new X-ray galaxy cluster sample through the LX–T scaling relation". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 636: A15. arXiv:2004.03305. Bibcode:2020A&A...636A..15M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936602. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 215238834. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  43. "The laws of physics may break down at the edge of the universe". Futurism. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  44. "New findings suggest laws of nature 'downright weird,' not as constant as previously thought". phys.org. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  45. Field, David (28 April 2020). "New Tests Suggest a Fundamental Constant of Physics Isn't The Same Across The Universe". ScienceAlert.com. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  46. Wilczynska, Michael R.; Webb, John K.; Bainbridge, Matthew; Barrow, John D.; Bosman, Sarah E. I.; Carswell, Robert F.; Dąbrowski, Mariusz P.; Dumont, Vincent; Lee, Chung-Chi; Leite, Ana Catarina; Leszczyńska, Katarzyna; Liske, Jochen; Marosek, Konrad; Martins, Carlos J. A. P.; Milaković, Dinko; Molaro, Paolo; Pasquini, Luca (1 April 2020). "Four direct measurements of the fine-structure constant 13 billion years ago". Science Advances. 6 (17): eaay9672. arXiv:2003.07627. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.9672W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aay9672. PMC 7182409. PMID 32426462.

Bibliography





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